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'''''Terra nullius''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|ɛr|ə|_|n|ʌ|ˈ|l|aɪ|.|ə|s}}, plural ''terrae nullius'') is a [[Latin]] expression deriving from [[Roman law]] meaning "land belonging to no one",<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of ''terra nullius''- English Dictionary|url=http://www.allwords.com/word-terra+nullius.html|publisher=Allwords.com|accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> which is used in [[public international law|international law]] to describe territory which has never been subject to the [[sovereignty]] of any state, or over which any prior sovereign has expressly or implicitly relinquished sovereignty. Sovereignty over territory which is ''terra nullius'' may be acquired through occupation,<ref>{{cite web<br />
| author =<br />
| title = New Jersey v. New York, 523 US 767 (1998)<br />
| publisher = US Supreme Court<br />
| url = http://openjurist.org/523/us/767/new-jersey-v-new-york<br />
| date = 26 May 1998<br />
| accessdate = 29 January 2010<br />
| quote = Even as to terra nullius, like a volcanic island or territory abandoned by its former sovereign, a claimant by right as against all others has more to do than planting a flag or rearing a monument. Since the 19th century the most generous settled view has been that discovery accompanied by symbolic acts give no more than "an inchoate title, an option, as against other states, to consolidate the first steps by proceeding to effective occupation within a reasonable time.''8 I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law 146 (4th ed.1990); see also 1 C. Hyde, International Law 329 (rev.2d ed.1945); 1 L. Oppenheim International Law §§222-223, pp. 439-441 (H. Lauterpacht 5th ed.1937); Hall A Treatise on International Law, at 102-103; 1 J. Moore, International Law 258 (1906); R. Phillimore, International Law 273 (2d ed. 1871); E. Vattel, Law of Nations, §208, p. 99 (J. Chitty 6th Am. ed. 1844).<br />
}}</ref> though in some cases doing so would violate an international law or treaty.<br />
<br />
==History in Australia==<br />
European settlement of [[Australia]] commenced in 1788. Prior to this, [[Indigenous Australians]] inhabited the continent and had unwritten laws, as documented in the case of the [[Yirrkala]] community.<br />
<br />
However, the Indigenous Australians did not have any form of political organization that Europeans could understand as being analogous to their own institutions, and the British could not find recognised leaders with the authority to sign treaties, so treaties were not signed (in contrast to British colonial practices in many areas of North America, Africa, New Zealand, etc.).<br />
<br />
The first test of ''terra nullius'' in Australia occurred with the decision of ''R v Tommy'' (Monitor, 28 November 1827), which indicated that the native inhabitants were only subject to English law where the incident concerned both natives and settlers. The rationale was that Aboriginal tribal groups already operated under their own legal systems. This position was further reinforced by the decisions of ''R v Boatman or Jackass and Bulleyes'' (Sydney Gazette, 25 February 1832) and ''R v Ballard'' (Sydney Gazette, 23 April 1829).<br />
<br />
In 1835 [[Richard Bourke|Governor Bourke]] implemented the doctrine of ''terra nullius'' by proclaiming that [[Indigenous Australians]] could not sell or assign land, nor could an individual person or group acquire it, other than through distribution by the [[Crown land|Crown]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=42 | title = Governor Bourke's Proclamation 1835 (UK) | work = Documenting a Democracy: 110 key documents that are the foundation of our nation | publisher = National Archives of Australia | accessdate = 2008-03-05 |quote = This document implemented the doctrine of ''terra nullius'' upon which British settlement was based, reinforcing the notion that the land belonged to no one prior the British Crown taking possession of it. Aboriginal people therefore could not sell or assign the land, nor could an individual person acquire it, other than through distribution by the Crown... Although many people at the time also recognised that the Aboriginal occupants had rights in the lands (and this was confirmed in a House of Commons report on Aboriginal relations in 1837), the law followed and almost always applied the principles expressed in Bourke's proclamation. This would not change until the Australian High Court's decision in the Mabo Case in 1992.}}</ref><br />
<br />
The first decision of the [[New South Wales Supreme Court]] to make explicit use of the term ''terra nullius'' was ''R v Murrell and Bummaree'' (unreported, New South Wales Supreme Court, 11 April 1836, Burton J). ''Terra nullius'' was not endorsed by the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] until the decision of [[Cooper v Stuart]] in 1889, some fifty three years later.<ref>[http://www.law.mq.edu.au/scnsw Decisions of the Superior Courts of New South Wales, 1788-1899], published by the Division of Law, [[Macquarie University]]</ref><br />
<br />
However, journalist Michael Connor has claimed that the concept was a [[straw man]] developed in the late twentieth century:<br />
<br />
<blockquote>By the time of [[Mabo v Queensland|Mabo]] in 1992, ''terra nullius'' was the only explanation for the British settlement of Australia. Historians, more interested in politics than archives, misled the legal profession into believing that a phrase no one had heard of a few years before was the very basis of our statehood, and Reynolds’ version of our history, especially The Law of the Land, underpinned the Mabo judges’ decision-making.<ref>Michael Connor in ''The Bulletin'' (Sydney), 20 August 2003: (see further Connor 2005.)</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
There is some controversy as to the meaning of the term. For example, it is asserted that, rather than implying mere emptiness, ''terra nullius'' can be interpreted as an absence of civilized society. The English [[common law]] of the time allowed for the legal settlement of "uninhabited or [[barbarous]] country".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austlii.com.au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/archives/mabo8.html |title=Australasian Legal Information Institute |publisher=AustLII |date= |accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1971, in the controversial [[Gove land rights case]], [[Richard Blackburn|Justice Richard Blackburn]] ruled that Australia had been ''terra nullius'' before European settlement, and that there was no such thing as [[native title]] in [[Law of Australia|Australian law]]. Court cases in 1977, 1979, and 1982 brought by or on behalf of Aboriginal activists challenged Australian sovereignty on the grounds that ''terra nullius'' had been improperly applied, therefore Aboriginal sovereignty should still be regarded as being intact. These cases were rejected by the courts, but the Australian High Court left the door open for a reassessment of whether the continent should be considered "settled" or "conquered".<br />
<br />
===''Mabo''===<br />
The concept of ''terra nullius'' became a major issue in Australian politics when in 1992, during an Aboriginal rights case known as ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)|Mabo]]'', the [[High Court of Australia]] issued a judgment which was a direct overturning of ''terra nullius''. In this case, the Court found that there was a concept of native title in common law, that the source of native title was the traditional connection to or occupation of the land, that the nature and content of native title was determined by the character of the connection or occupation under traditional laws or customs and that native title could be extinguished by the valid exercise of governmental powers provided a clear and plain intention to do so was manifest.<br />
<br />
In 1996, The High Court re-visited the subject of native title in ''[[Wik Peoples v Queensland|Wik]]''. The 4-3 majority in the [[Wik Decision|''Wik'' Decision]] stated that native title and pastoral leases could co-exist over the same area and that native peoples could use land for hunting and performing sacred ceremonies even without exercising rights of ownership. However, in the event of any conflict between the rights and interests of pastoralists and native title, it would be the former that would prevail.<br />
<br />
The court's ruling in ''Mabo'' has enabled some Aboriginal peoples to [[Aboriginal land claim|reclaim]] limited territory appropriated under the doctrine of ''terra nullius''. This has proven extremely controversial, as it has led to lawsuits seeking the transfer or restoration of land ownership rights to native groups. An estimated 3,000 further agreements have been reached in which Aboriginal peoples have regained former lands. An example is that of a December 2004 case in which the [[Noonkanbah]] people were recognised as the traditional owners of a {{convert|1811|km²|0|abbr=on}} plot of land in [[Western Australia]]. In the [[Northern Territory]], 40 per cent of the land and most of its coastline is now owned by Aboriginal peoples.<br />
<br />
==''Terrae nullius'' elsewhere==<br />
<br />
===Western Sahara===<br />
{{related article|International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Western Sahara}}<br />
''Terra nullius'' was still relevant to [[international law]] in the 1970s, as evidenced by the [[UN General Assembly]]'s request to the [[International Court of Justice]] in 1974 to determine the status of the [[Western Sahara]] ([[Río de Oro]] and [[Saguia el-Hamra]]) at the time of [[colonization]] by Spain. The court decided that Western Sahara had not been ''terra nullius'' at the time of colonization.<br />
<br />
===Svalbard===<br />
[[Svalbard]] was considered to be a ''terra nullius'' until [[Norway]] was given sovereignty over the islands in the [[Svalbard Treaty]] of 9 February 1920. [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Denmark–Norway]] all claimed sovereignty over the region in the seventeenth century, but none permanently occupied the islands. Each visited Svalbard only during the summer for [[whaling]], with the first two sending a few wintering parties in the 1620s and 1630s.<br />
<br />
===Greenland===<br />
{{Main|Erik the Red's Land}}<br />
[[Norway]] occupied and claimed parts of (then uninhabited) Eastern [[Greenland]] in the 1920s, claiming that it constituted ''terra nullius''. The matter was decided by the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] against Norway.<br />
<br />
===Antarctica===<br />
Another example of a ''terra nullius'' was [[Antarctica]], which was not sighted by humans until [[HMS_Resolution_(Cook)#Cook.27s_voyages|James Cook's second voyage in 1773/4]]. Several countries made claims to parts of the continent in the first half of the 20th century, while [[#Unclaimed areas in Antarctica|other areas]] remain unclaimed.<br />
<br />
===Scarborough Shoal===<br />
The [[Philippines]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] both claim the [[Scarborough Shoal]] or Panatag Shoal or Huangyan Island (黄岩岛), nearest to the island of [[Luzon]], located in the [[South China Sea]]. The Philippines claims it under the principles of ''terra nullius'' and EEZ ([[Exclusive Economic Zone]]). China's claim refers to its discovery in the 13th century by Chinese fishermen.<br />
<br />
===New Zealand===<br />
In 1840, Lieutenant [[William Hobson]], following instructions of the British government, pronounced the [[South Island|southern island]] of [[New Zealand]] to be uninhabited by civilized peoples, which qualified the land to be "terra nullius", and therefore fit for the Crown's political occupation.<br />
Hobson's decision was also influenced by a small party of French settlers heading towards Akeroa on Bank's peninsula to settle in 1840.<br />
<br />
===Canada===<br />
[[Joseph Trutch]], the first Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia, insisted that [[First Nations]] had never owned land, and thus could safely be ignored. It is for this reason that most of [[British Columbia]] remains unceded land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ubcic.bc.ca/Resources/shortcommentary.htm |title=A Short Commentary on Land Claims in BC |publisher=Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs |date= |accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref><br />
<br />
In ''[[R. v. Guerin|Guerin v. The Queen]]'', a [[Supreme Court of Canada]] decision on aboriginal rights, the Court stated that the government has a [[Fiduciary|fiduciary duty]] toward the First Nations of Canada and established aboriginal title to be a [[sui generis]] right. Since, there has been a more complicated debate and a general narrowing of the definition of "fiduciary duty".<br />
<br />
===Guano Islands===<br />
The [[Guano Islands Act]] from August 18, 1856, enabled citizens of the U.S. to take possession of islands containing [[guano]] deposits. The islands can be located anywhere, so long as they are not occupied and not within the jurisdiction of other governments. It also empowers the President of the United States to use the military to protect such interests, and establishes the criminal jurisdiction of the United States.<br />
<br />
===Senkaku Islands===<br />
A [[Senkaku Islands dispute|disputed archipelago]] in the [[East China Sea]], the uninhabited [[Senkaku Islands]] are stated by Japan to have become part of their territory as ''terra nullius'' during the nineteenth century. This interpretation is not accepted by other claimants of the islands, the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) and the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan).<br />
<br />
===Burkina Faso and Niger===<br />
A narrow strip of land adjacent to two territorial markers along the [[Burkina Faso]]–[[Niger]] border was claimed by neither country until the [[ICJ]] settled a more extensive territorial dispute in 2013. The former ''terra nullius'' was awarded to Niger.<ref>http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/149/17306.pdf page 28, between Tong-Tong & Tao astronomical markers</ref><br />
<br />
==Current ''terrae nullius''==<br />
[[File:Egypt Sudan claims.svg|thumb|upright|Simplified map showing Egypt's claim (yellow and green), Sudan's claim (blue and green) and Bir Tawil (white)]]<br />
<br />
===Bir Tawil===<br />
Between [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] is the {{convert|2060|km²|0|abbr=on}} landlocked territory of [[Bir Tawil]], which was created during a 1902 border change between the two countries, along with the [[Hala'ib Triangle]]. Both countries claim the [[Hala'ib Triangle]], and insist on using the border that lets them claim the territory, which is significantly larger and next to the [[Red Sea]]. A side effect of this is that Bir Tawil is unclaimed by either territory. The area is, however, under the ''de facto'' control of Egypt, although it is not shown on official Egyptian maps.<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gqo33hntWGsC&pg=PT992&dq=Bir+Tawil&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1AHFUKnTLKSI0QGb8YHQCA&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBg ''CIA World Factbook 2009''] MobileReference, 2009. ISBN 1607783339</ref> Bir Tawil has no settled population.<br />
<br />
===Unclaimed areas in Antarctica===<br />
[[File:Antarctica, territorial claims.svg|thumb|250px|[[Territorial claims in Antarctica]], with the unclaimed part of West Antarctica shown in white. The off-white area near the South Pole in the Norwegian sector may also be unclaimed.]]<br />
<br />
While several countries have made [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|claims to parts of Antarctica]], most of [[Marie Byrd Land]] (the portion east of [[150th meridian west|150°W]]) has not been claimed by any sovereign nation. Signatories to the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] of 1959 agreed not to make such claims, except the [[Soviet Union]] and the United States, who reserved the right to make a claim.<br />
<br />
The Norwegian claim to [[Queen Maud Land]] left its southern boundary undefined,<ref name="Dronning Maud Land">{{cite web|url=http://www.npolar.no/en/antarctica/dronning-maud-land.html|publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]]|title=Dronning Maud Land|accessdate=31 August 2011}}</ref> so the southern part of that segment of Antarctica may also be unclaimed.<br />
<br />
===International sea===<br />
Under the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] of 1982, the [[international waters]] and [[International Seabed Authority|international seabed]] are treated under the [[common heritage of mankind]] principle by the signatories of the convention.<br />
<br />
===Celestial bodies===<br />
According to the [[Outer Space Treaty]] of 1967, [[outer space]], including the [[Moon]] and other [[celestial bodies]], is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.<ref>{{cite web|author=Friday, Jul. 25, 1969 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901102-8,00.html |title=A 1969 Time article |publisher=Time.com |date=1969-07-25 |accessdate=2010-06-08}}</ref> They are treated under the [[common heritage of mankind]] principle by the signatories of the treaty.<br />
<br />
==Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty==<br />
The principal treaties defining sovereignty beyond land territory are the [[Outer Space Treaty]] and the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]. They confirm the full national jurisdiction over the coastal waters (internal and territorial) and over the continental shelf underground. There are limitations that allow foreign vessels the right of passage and for foreign states to lay [[pipeline transport|pipelines]] and [[undersea cable|cables]] in the territorial waters, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf surface. Exploitation of [[marine life]] and [[mineral resources]] in these areas is a reserved right of the coastal state. Exploitation of mineral resources in the extended continental shelf is a reserved right of the coastal state, but it must pay tax on these activities to the [[International Seabed Authority]] (UNCLOS, Art. 82). The [[archipelagic waters]] are covered by a special hybrid regime with rules regarding territorial and internal waters.<br />
<br />
On vessels, spacecraft and structures in places with international jurisdiction or ''terra nullius,'' the general rule is that the operator state of the vessel is responsible for it and regulates laws there. Additionally, the crew are subject to the laws of the state of their [[citizenship]] {{Dubious|date=August 2010}}. [[Extraterrestrial real estate#Ownership of empty space|Earth orbital slots]] are the only type of extraterrestrial real estate recognised by law and are allocated by the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (part of the [[United Nations System|UN System]]).<br />
<br />
There are some undefined limits for the application of jurisdiction and sovereignty:<br />
* The boundary between [[outer space]] and [[airspace]] is not defined. In common parlance, the [[Kármán line]] (100&nbsp;km) is generally recognized as the boundary between airspace and outer space, but this definition is not explicitly recognized in any treaty.<br />
* UNCLOS commission is defining the limits of the [[Territorial waters#Extended continental shelf claims|extended continental shelf]].<br />
* UNCLOS is inconclusive about the status of airspace over the contiguous zone (whether it is treated as international airspace or some special rules apply there).{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}<br />
* There is no defined bottom underground limit for jurisdiction and sovereignty, because in practice there are no cases where it is relevant and the current technology level does not allow the reaching of depths where conflicting claims could be made (there are some disputes about border underground [[oil and gas field|oil and gas]] reserve reservoirs, but their depth is not enough so that the curvature of the Earth and the exact line of the underground border between the states matters).<br />
<br />
The current entities that exercise jurisdiction and [[sovereignty]] rights are:<br />
* the 193 [[United Nations member states]];<br />
* [[Holy See]] and [[Palestine]], the [[United Nations General Assembly observers#Non-member states|United Nations observer states]];<br />
* [[Cook Islands]] and [[Niue]], [[Associated state|associated]] with and represented in foreign affairs by [[New Zealand]];<br />
* the 16 [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories|non-self-governing territories]] with recognised right for self-determination by the United Nations (currently under jurisdiction of 5 UN members);<br />
* the 10 [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]];<br />
* [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]], the sole remaining sovereign non-state entity; has no territorial claims, but issues citizenship; has UN observer status<br />
* the current ''terra nullius'' cases of [[Bir Tawil]] and [[Marie Byrd Land]] are not claimed by any of the other 222 entities;<br />
* [[Stateless person]]s that do not have citizenship of any of the 222 entities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" cellpadding="5"<br />
|+Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ff9090; color:black; border:3px dashed red;" colspan="8"| [[Outer space]] <small>(including Earth [[orbit]]s; the [[Moon]] and other [[celestial bodies]], and their orbits)</small><br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="2" | national [[airspace]] || style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | territorial waters airspace ||style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | contiguous zone airspace{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}|| style="background:#ff9090; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="4" | international airspace<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | [[List of countries|land territory]] surface ||style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | internal waters surface || style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | territorial waters surface || style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | contiguous zone surface || style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | Exclusive Economic Zone surface || style="background:#ff9090; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="3" | international waters surface<br />
|- style="color:black;"<br />
|style="background:#90ff90; border:2px solid black;" colspan="2" | [[internal waters]] || style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | [[territorial waters]] || style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="2" | [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] || style="background:#ff9090; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="3" | [[international waters]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"| land territory [[Earth|underground]] || style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="3" | [[Continental Shelf]] surface ||style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | [[Territorial waters#Extended continental shelf claims|extended continental shelf]] surface || rowspan="2" style="background:yellow; color:black; border:3px dashed red; width:0;"| || style="background:#ff9090; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | [[International Seabed Authority|international seabed]] surface<br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:2px solid black;" colspan="3" | [[Continental Shelf]] underground ||style="background:yellow; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | [[Territorial waters#Extended continental shelf claims|extended continental shelf]] underground || style="background:#ff9090; color:black; border:2px solid black;" | [[International Seabed Authority|international seabed]] underground<br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#90ff90; color:black; border:3px dashed red;" colspan="8" |<br />
|-<br />
| style="height:0;" colspan="7"|<br />
|}<br />
{{legend|#90ff90|full national [[jurisdiction]] and [[sovereignty]]}}<br />
{{legend|yellow|restrictions on national jurisdiction and sovereignty}}<br />
{{legend|#ff9090|international jurisdiction per [[common heritage of mankind]]}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Aboriginal land claims]]<br />
* [[Australia]]<br />
** [[Henry A. Reynolds]]<br />
** [[History wars]]<br />
** [[Native title]]<br />
*** [[Mabo v Queensland]]<br />
*** [[Wik Peoples v Queensland]]<br />
* [[Bir Tawil]]<br />
* [[Land claim]]<br />
* [[Manifest destiny]]<br />
* [[No man's land]]<br />
* [[Neutral territory]]<br />
* [[Res nullius|''Res nullius'' (original and broader formulation in law)]]<br />
* [[Uncontacted people]]<br />
* [[Uti possidetis]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
;Notes<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
;Bibliography<br />
* Connor, Michael. "The invention of ''terra nullius''", Sydney: [[Macleay Press]], 2005.<br />
* Culhane, Dara. ''The Pleasure of the Crown: Anthropology, Law, and the First Nations.'' Vancouver: Talon Books, 1998.<br />
* Lindqvist, Sven. Terra nullius. A Journey through No One's Land. Translated by Sarah Death. Granta, London 2007. Pbk 2008. The New Press, New York 2007. [http://www.svenlindqvist.net/main.asp?cat=2&lang=2&id=218 Details here]<br />
* Rowse, Tim. "Terra nullius" - The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Ed. Graeme Davison, John Hirst and Stuart Macintyre. Oxford University Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, Social Justice Reports, 1994-2009 http://www.humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/sj_report/ and Native Title Reports, 1994-2009 http://www.humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/nt_report/index.html<br />
* [http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/departs/history/research/projects/fitzmaurice_terra.shtml A History of the concept of "Terra Nullius" The University of Sydney]<br />
* [http://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/objectsthroughtime/objects/bourketerra/ Governor Burke's 1835 Proclamation of ''terra nullius''] NSW Migration Heritage Centre - Statement of Significance<br />
* [http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=4141 Veracini L, An analysis of Michael Conner's denial of ''terra nullius'' (''The Invention of Terra Nullius'')]<br />
* Terror Nullius <http://www.wulfdhund.de/rassismusanalyse/?Ergaenzungen:Australien><br />
* [http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/high%5fct/175clr1.html?query=title+%28+%22mabo%22+%29] High Court of Australia - MABO AND OTHERS v. QUEENSLAND (No. 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 F.C. 92/014<br />
* [http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/HCA/1996/40.html?query=title%28wik+peoples+near+queensland%29] High Court of Australia - The [[Wik peoples|Wik]] Peoples v The State of [[Queensland]] & Ors; The [[Thayorre]] People v The State of Queensland & Ors [1996] HCA 40 (23 December 1996)<br />
* [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/igeneralinformation/ibbook/Bbook8-2.15.htm] 1975 International Court of Justice - Advisory Opinion regarding Western Sahara<br />
* [http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/web/common.nsf/key/HistoryBeforeEuropeanSettlement "History before European Settlement"] [[Parliament of New South Wales]] - note misspelling as "terra nulius"<br />
* [http://www.bosnsw-k6.nsw.edu.au/linkages/IntegratedUnits/aboriginal/invasion_learn03.html material on ''terra nullius''] - NSW [[Primary School]] [[curriculum]]<br />
* [http://www.law.mq.edu.au/scnsw/Cases1831-32/html/r_v_boatman_or_jackass_and_bul.htm] R. v. Boatman or Jackass and Bulleye - Decisions of the Superior Courts of New South Wales, 1788-1899 (Published by the Division of Law, Macquarie University)<br />
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